Second, until the end of the 1970s, English language testing as reflected in textbooks and institutional settings was characterized by a focus on listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, and the testing of discrete points of language. However, the developing notion of “communicative competence” and a general focus on proficiency over achievement revolutionized the field from the late 1970s. Spolsky is credited with first noticing this trend in 1976 when he famously divided the history of language testing into “traditional,” “psychometric-structuralist,” and “psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic” stages (Davies, 356). It is in this final stage, which emphasizes the context in which language is used, that the tests introduced below developed.

a. English Language Assessment Tools Administered by English-speaking Economies

i. TOEFL
The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) evaluates general English proficiency and is required for admission to over 6000 colleges, universities, and licensing agencies in 110 countries. It is now also widely accepted by institutions in other countries where English is the language of instruction, including most UK universities and colleges.

TOEFL test takers do not pass or fail; instead they get a score which reflects overall ability in English. An employer or university for example may insist on a minimum score before confirming the appointment to a job or place on a course of study. The TOEFL test is offered in different formats depending on a test taker's location. There are two kinds of computerized tests: Internet-based TOEFL test (TOEFL iBT) and Computer-based TOEFL test (TOEFL CBT).
1) TOEFL iBT
TOEFL iBT tests all four language skills that are important for effective communication: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. The test helps students demonstrate that they have the English skills needed for success. TOEFL iBT also emphasizes integrated skills and provides significant information to institutions about students' ability to communicate in an academic setting and their readiness for academic coursework.
2) TOEFL CBT
The computer-based TOEFL (TOEFL CBT) test measures English language proficiency in the following areas: Listening, Structure, Reading and Writing.

Most people take the TOEFL test as a prerequisite for admission into colleges and universities where English is used or required. In addition, many government, licensing, and certification agencies and exchange and scholarship programs use TOEFL scores to evaluate the English proficiency of people for whom English is not their native language.

ii. IELTS
The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is jointly managed by the University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, the British Council and IDP Education Australia. The exam measures students’ ability in all aspects of the English language in either the academic or general training realms:
- For academic study or professional registration, one should choose the 'Academic Module'
- For non-academic training, work experience or for immigration purposes, select the 'General Training Module'

IELTS is very widely recognized by universities in Britain and many other English-speaking countries. It is definitely the first test to think about if one wants to study at a British university. Students will need an IELTS score to apply to universities in the UK, Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Professional bodies, governments and immigration authorities in many countries around the world also accept IELTS scores as proof of language proficiency.

IELTS comprises four equally weighted exams: Listening, Reading, Writing, and Speaking. All candidates take the same listening and speaking exams. However, for the reading and writing tests, the 'Academic Module' and the 'General Training Module' are distinctly different. Test takers receive one score for each exam and an overall score in the form of a whole or a half band (e.g. 5.0, 5.5). There are nine bands and they each describe English language ability at that level. The highest is 9 (expert user) and the lowest is 0 (no English language ability).

iii. CPE
The Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency (CPE) is the highest level general English exam offered by the University of Cambridge. With a long history, it is still regarded by many as the benchmark level for advanced English. A CPE pass (C or above) is also widely accepted as the English language requirement by British and many international universities.

CPE takes place in June and December only each year. There are 5 papers (Reading Comprehension, Composition, Use of English, Listening Comprehension and Interview). The Listening paper carries 12% of the marks; the others carry 22% each.

CPE is quite a popular exam - over 60,000 people sit it each year. It is the sort of exam that some native English speakers could never pass. It demands a precise, academic and analytical approach to language and is probably best suited to those who want to use English academically - for example as teachers, lecturers or translators. If test takers wish to certify their ability to use English at work, the Certificate of Advanced English described below is probably more appropriate. It also tests English at a very high level but focuses on practical, real-life tasks.

iv. CAE
The Cambridge Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) is a much more recent exam than the CPE, having been introduced in 1991 and it is a much more modern exam in its approach. CAE tests one’s ability to use English in practical and varied tasks, and test takers are marked as much on their ability to complete the task as on the level of English they demonstrate. CAE is accepted by many universities as fulfilling their English language requirement, but students may need to get a certain grade (e.g. B or above) depending on the university / course in question.

There are 5 papers in the exam (which takes place every June and December). These are: Reading, Writing, English In Use, Speaking and Listening. Each paper carries 20% of the total marks.